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Skip to content. The theories are described in House and Aditya These leadership items consisted of behavioral and attribute descriptors. Examples of these items are presented in Table 4. Items were rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale that ranged from a low of "This behavior or characteristic greatly inhibits a person from being an outstanding leader" to a high of "This behavior or characteristic contributes greatly to a person being an outstanding leader".
We empirically identified six global leader behavior dimensions from a large pool of leadership items. These dimensions are culturally generalisable for measurement purposes, in the sense that respondents from all cultures were able to complete the questionnaire items that comprise these dimen- sions.
Thus, these dimensions of reported leadership attributes and behaviors are dimensions of the culturally endorsed theories of leadership of the country studied. Motivator: Mobilises, activates followers. Evasive: Refrains from making negative comments to maintain good relationships and save face. Diplomatic: Skilled at interpersonal relations, tactful. Sell-interested: Pursues own best interests.
Response Alternatives Impedes or facilitates unusually effective leadership Substantially impedes Moderately impedes Slightly impedes Neither impedes nor facilitates Slight facilitates Moderately facilitates Substantially facilitates Note: CLT.
The psychometric properties of the scales used to measure these dimensions exceed conventional standards. Two of these dimensions are universally viewed as contributors to effective leadership, one is nearly uni- versally endorsed as a contributor, and one is nearly universally perceived as an impediment to outstanding leadership.
The endorsement of the remain- ing two dimensions varies by culture. The integrated theory is briefly described here. For a more detailed description of the integrated theory, see House, Wright, and Aditya A diagram of the integrated theory is presented in Fig.
L The Centra! Theoretical Proposition. The integrated theory consists of the following propositions, which are also shown in the system diagram in Fig. Societal cultural values and practices affect what leaders do. Sub- stantial empirical evidence supports this assertion House et al. First, founders of organisations—the organisations' original leaders—are immersed in their own societal culture, and they are most likely to enact the global leader behavior patterns that are favored in that culture.
Founders influence the behavior of sub- ordinate leaders and subsequent leaders by use of selective manage- ment selection criteria, role modeling, and socialisation. Further, the dominant cultural norms endorsed by societal cultures induce global leader behavior patterns and organisational practices that are differ- entially expected and viewed as legitimate among cultures.
Thus, the attributes and behaviors of leaders are, in part, a reflection of the organisational practices, which in turn are a reflection of societal cultures e.
Leadership affects organisational form, culture, and practices. Founders of organisations establish the initial culture of their organisations e. Societal cultural values and practices also affect organisational culture and practices. Societal culture has a direct influence on organisational culture, as the shared meaning that results from the dominant cultural values, beliefs, assumptions, and implicit motives endorsed by culture, results in common implicit leadership theories and implicit organisation theories held by members of the culture e.
Organisational culture and practices also affect what leaders do. Over time, founders and subsequent leaders in organisations respond to the organisational culture and alter their behaviors and leader styles e.
Societal culture and organisational form, culture, and practices both influence the process by which people come to share implicit theories of leadership. Over time, CLTs are developed in each culture in response to both societal and organisational culture and practices e.
CLTs thus differentiate cultures. Strategic organisational contingencies affect organisational form, cul- ture, and practices and leader behaviors.
Strategic organisational contingencies affect leader attributes and behavior. Leaders are selected and adjust their behaviors to meet the requirements of organisational contingencies. Relationships between strategic organisational contingencies and organ- isational form, culture, and practices will be moderated by cultural forces.
For example, in low uncertainty avoidance cultures we expect that forces toward formalisation will be weaker, and therefore the relationship between such forces and organisational formalisation practices will be lower.
In low power distance cultures we expect that forces toward centralisation of decision making will be weaker and therefore the relationship between such forces and decentralisation and delegation practices will be lower. We specify such moderating effects in detail when we discuss Phase 2 and 3 hypotheses. Leader acceptance is a function of the interaction between CLTs and leader attributes and behaviors. Accordingly, leader attributes and behaviors that are congruent with CLTs will be more accepted than leader attributes and behaviors that are not congruent with CLTs.
Leader effectiveness is a function of the interaction between leader attributes and behaviors and organisational contingencies. Leaders who effectively address organisational contingencies will be more effective than leaders who do not. Leader acceptance influences leader effectiveness.
Leaders who are not accepted will find it more difficult to influence subordinates than those who are accepted. Thus, leader acceptance facilitates leader effectiveness. Leader effectiveness influences leader acceptance. Leaders who are effective will, in the long run, come to be accepted by all or most subordinates. Subordinates will either be dismissed or voluntarily leave the organisation led by leaders they do not accept.
In summary, the attributes and practices that distinguish cultures from each other, as well as strategic organisational contingencies, are predictive of the leader attributes and behaviors, and organisational practices, that are most frequently perceived as acceptable are most frequently enacted, and are most effective.
For a more detailed, fine-grained elaboration of the relationships depicted in Fig. The executive question- naires elicited responses relevant to organisational attributes, organisational contingencies, and performance.
These responses will be used in Phase 3 to test hypotheses relevant to structural contingency theory of organisational form and effectiveness. Interested readers can find a much more detailed description in House et al.
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